Copts in Late Medieval Egypt

              (CE:618a-635b)
COPTS IN LATE MEDIEVAL EGYPT. Individuals identified by the word Qibt figure prominently in the Arabic biographical literature of medieval Egypt, and especially during the Mamluk period (1249-1517). The term referred to persons of Coptic lineage. Virtually all individuals recorded in these biographical sources, however, were practicing Muslims—as were their fathers and often their grandfathers. Yet they were still regarded as "of the Coptic people." They were routinely depicted as having a natural aptitude for accounting and administration, but also as having an inclination toward treachery, dishonesty, guile, and, above all, spiritual ambiguity. Several writers of the Mamluk era claimed that a Muslim of Coptic descent was potentially a false Muslim. Even worse, he was suspected of converting to the majority faith, admittedly often under duress, in order to aggrandize his own position at the expense of his "genuine" Muslim colleagues. Indeed, such a person was frequently accused of converting in order to blaspheme against Islam and to lead true believers astray. Such a false Muslim was always, it was alleged, on the verge of retrogressing to Christian practices.

The Copts who succeeded in Cairo during the Middle Ages unquestionably found themselves in a delicate situation. They professed Islam, yet were not widely accepted as true believers. How many of them were actually backsliders is difficult to assess. Most did retain some ties with their religious past, and many continued to interact with Coptic social groups. This contact was the subject of wide discussion, and was viewed as a sign of indifferent adherence to the true faith. Yet Muslim Copts apparently had little choice in the levels of society open to them, since all the indicators point to a state of partial segregation from the various elements of the orthodox ‘ulama’ class (learned interpreters of Islamic Law). Had they been willingly accepted, these people might have been assimilated into its ranks.

They were not accepted, however, and the range of activities they pursued implies the limited extent to which their contemporaries were disposed to allow their penetration into the Mamluk power structure—or their participation in the Islamic establishment. The Mamluks were prepared to recruit Muslim Copts to their service, and it is likely that they promoted propaganda hostile to Copts in order to bind them more tightly. Indeed, only the Mamluks stood between the Copts and the potentially dangerous masses of the population; no acts of persecution could occur without their acquiescence. Individual Copts who realized that they stood to lose in any contest with a legitimate Muslim were ready to accept the ambivalent conditions of service imposed by their Mamluk overlords, who alone opened the doors of influence and wealth. That Mamluks provided security to Copts largely because they were of use to them did not instill feelings of mutual affection. But whatever the motives, security in return for service was better than no security at all.

The Mamluks appointed Muslim Copts to several of the highest executive offices of the state, where they often administered the fiscal and procedural affairs of the imperial court and the households of the great amirs. Copts were occasionally rewarded for exceptional assistance in times of crisis with the honorary rank of amir. But they were not permitted to engage in any military activities, which remained the exclusive prerogative of the Mamluks, especially those of the first generation. Copts were encouraged to infiltrate several levels of the governmental bureaucracy. They staffed many segments of the secretarial class. They were appointed to financial controllerships expressly to amass substantial fortunes that they were to share with their patrons. Yet only one individual held the post of controller of pious endowments in a Muslim religious institution, and his social status deviated considerably from the usual. In general, Copts appeared consistently in controllerships directly associated with diwans of the regime, and did not administer funds of Muslim institutions, even though they professed the faith. The evidence points, in fact, to the exclusion of Copts from offices involved with the functions of the Islamic community. They were rarely appointed as official scribes in either the civil courts or the governmental bureaus, and few ever attained the pivotal office of secretary of the chancellery.

Throughout the later Middle Ages, the Muslim Copts do not seem to have gained access to offices endowed with the authority to make decisions affecting the spiritual lives of legitimate Muslims. Their role in the bureaucracy was primarily financial and procedural. Few appeared among the stewards who managed the mundane operations of mosques, colleges, and hospitals. There were no Muslim Copts who were court notaries, because the shahid was first a lawyer trained in the shari‘ah and second a bureaucrat. Persons of Christian ancestry were not widely regarded as suited to study Islamic law. Above all, they were not considered legitimate arbiters in legal questions concerning Muslims. Muslim Copts held no legal offices in the sample derived from the biographical literature of this period. Not a single case was reported for any aspect of the judiciary. Since the legal profession was a fundamental component of the ‘ulama’ class and its most authoritative element, the absence of Muslim Copts from its ranks underscores their marginal status.

This hypothesis of marginality is reinforced by the virtual absence of Muslim Copts from the scholarly and religious categories. They tended neither to pursue advanced studies in the Islamic sciences nor to minister to the spiritual needs of the Islamic community. Since they were Muslims, many would presumably have wished to do so, and one must therefore conclude that they were denied the opportunity. Biographical compilers did not explain why Muslim Copts pursued few studies in the Islamic curriculum. They simply did not record any such studies, as they did so meticulously for persons they considered to be true believers.

In summary, the Muslim Copts emerge from the biographical accounts of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries as a highly specialized group, channeled by both the military and the civilian elites into fiscal and administrative tasks. There they were useful to the Mamluks, who, although rarely averse to extorting money by any available means, nonetheless displayed little interest—or finesse—in the bureaucratic techniques required by a diwan post. Moreover, a Mamluk could not justify such doings to the extent his clients could, especially if they were not held accountable to Islamic principles, as he was. The Mamluks proclaimed themselves defenders of the faith, pledged to guard the community of believers from its enemies. In practice, they found the Copts ideal agents for unobtrusive infiltration into the revenue-yielding processes. The appearance of the same individuals holding multiple offices suggests that certain persons effectively monopolized these procedures.

Military-Executive Offices

Officials in this category wielded some measure of authority over procedural administrators or advisers. In the Mamluk state, most of these posts were held by members of the military elite. Yet the appearance of Muslim Copts in this category suggests that adroit members of the minority group could aspire to offices normally closed to civilians in general. Virtually all persons in this category had developed client ties with one or more influential Mamluks; a majority were associates of sultans.

Amir: Mamluk officer. When the title was bestowed on a civilian, it granted him honorary status and privileges usually reserved for the military elite. Given in recognition of service to the sultan in the fiscal bureaus, it was a rare distinction for a Copt.

One position, less than 2 percent of fifty-nine total:

Zayn al-Din Yahya ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Misri al-Qahiri, known as al-Ashqar, b. 800/1397-1398 (Manhal III, f. 402b; Wiet 2633).

Amir al-mashwarah: Officer of (royal) consultation. Rare: title appeared only in this case. Presumably a civilian member of the sultan's advisory council with executive responsibilities.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim ibn Abd al-Razzaq al-Skandari al-Misri al-Qibti, known as Ibn Ghurab, d. Rajab 808/December 1405-January 1406 (Daw’ I, p. 65).

Amir mi’ah: Commander of 100, official military rank in the Mamluk hierarchy. One of the highest honors ever bestowed on any civilian in the state, recognizing exceptional service to the sultan. The appearance of this title in a civilian's career list proves that the Mamluk military system was not totally exclusive and that Muslim Copts who had shown extraordinary talent were singled out by the regime for co-optation at the highest levels.

One position, 3 percent of thirty-one total:

The preceding Ibn Ghurab, but position noted only in Manhal I, f. 23; Wiet 47.

Dawadar: Executive of the imperial court in Cairo (in the Citadel); literally, bearer of the sultan's pen box or inkstand. Responsible for carrying out the sultan's commands, and thus an intermediary between the throne and senior bureaucrats. Presenter of petitions submitted during audiences, arranger of the sultan's daily schedule, assigner of documents to appropriate diwans, and securer of the royal signature and/or seal on edicts. Usually a Mamluk grand amir and therefore distinguished among Muslims of Christian background.

One position, less than 3 percent of thirty-six total:

Nasir al-Din Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq, d. Muharram 881/April-May 1476 (Daw’, VIII, p. 55, no. 70).

Kashif: Inspector. Provincial official sent out from Cairo or based locally (more rarely) to supervise upkeep of public works (roads, canals, dikes, toll stations, and guardhouses). A senior inspector was appointed as governor of the Delta (al-wajh al-Bahri), Upper Egypt (al-wajh al-Qibli), and of the Fayyum and Bahnasa. The latter were military posts restricted to higher officers, but Copts appeared in the fiscal and administrative ranks.

Three positions, 16 percent of nineteen total:

Fakhr al-Din ‘Abd al-Ghani ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Armani al-Qibti, d. Shawwal 821/November 1418 (Manhal, II, f. 336; Wiet 1442) (twice).

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Katib al-Munakh, d. Rabi‘ II 852/June-July 1448 (Manhal, II, f. 345; Wiet 1461).

Muqaddam: Commander. Usually an office restricted to the most senior Mamluk amir. Significant here is that an individual from the Coptic minority received this title, which conferred military status, if not powers.

Two positions, 2 percent of 104 total:

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Skandari al-Misri al-Qibti, known as Ibn Ghurab, d. Rajab 808/December 1405-January 1406(Daw’ I, p. 65; Manhal, f. 23; Wiet 47) (twice).

Na’ib: Representative of the Sultan. In the Mamluk military hierarchy, representative of the sultan in the Egyptian or Syrian provinces. In this context, a Copt served as assistant to senior Mamluk officers.

One position, less than 1 percent of 151 total:

Nasir al-Din Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Armani al-Qibti, d. Muharram 881/April-May 1476 (Manhal, III, f. 180; Wiet 2187).

Naqib al-jaysh: Adjutant of the army. Responsible for guaranteeing the presence of amirs and officials whose services were required by the sultan. Royal guard during processions, ceremonials, trips. Caller of the roll during the troop reviews. Under the chamberlain (hajib), served as a chief of police and local security, especially in the Circassian period. Open to bribery. That Muslim Copts held this office, formally the exclusive domain of the military caste, suggests the regime's preparedness to appoint trusted bureaucrats whose reliability was proven.

Three positions, 25 percent of twelve total:

Nasir al-Din Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq, d. Muharram 881/April-May 1476 (Daw’ VIII, p. 55, no. 70; Manhal III, f. 180; Wiet 2187) (three times).

Shadd: Superintendent of a royal bureau or of a royal monopoly, treasury, repository, or customs station (often in a provincial capital).

One position, 7 percent of fourteen total:

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Katib al-Munakhat, d. Rabi‘ II 852/June-July 1448 (Daw’ IV, p. 313, no. 848).

Shadd al-khass: Superintendent of the private fund reserved for costs of military expeditions, which could not be routinely predicted or budgeted from the state treasury. Uniforms for royal Mamluks, robes of honor, and expenses for state festivals were also paid out of the fund. This official usually served in a provincial capital; his counterpart in Cairo was the nazir al-khass.

One position, 50 percent of two total:

Zayn al-Din ‘Abd al-Qadir ibn ‘Abd al-Ghani al-Armani al-Qibti al-Qahiri, known as Ibn Abi al-Faraj, d. 833/1430 (Manhal II, f. 338; Wiet 1445).

Ustadar: Majordomo, literally ustadh-dar (master of the house). Overseer of a sultan's or amir's household, supervisor of supplies for the royal family and palace Mamluks. During the Circassian period (1382-1517), he often combined several offices (supplanting the wazir) to assume control over all state finances. Usually conferred on a grand amir who was a working associate of the current sultan, this office marked the highest level to which a civil bureaucrat might aspire. The frequency of arrests and dismissals accompanying the office, however, suggests that its prestige was counterbalanced by its risk.

Nineteen positions, 26 percent of seventy-three total:

Fakhr al-Din ‘Abd al-Ghani ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Armani al-Qibti, known as Ibn Abi al-Faraj, d. Shawwal 821/November 1418 (Manhal II, f. 336; Wiet 1442) (twice).

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Katib al-Munakhat, d. Rabi‘ II 852/June-July 1448 (Daw IV, p. 313, no. 848).

Zayn al-Din ‘Abd al-Qadir ibn ‘Abd al-Ghani al-Armani al-Qibti al-Qahiri, known as Ibn Abi al-Faraj, d. 833/1429-1430 (Manhal II, f. 338; Wiet 1445) (twice).

Taj al-Din ‘Abd al-Razzaq ibn Ibrahim al-Qibti, known as Ibn al-Haysam, d. Dhu al-Qa‘dah 834/August-September 1431 (Daw IV, p. 191, no. 485).

Taqi al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab ibn ‘Abd-Allah al-Misri al-Qibti al-Hanafi, d. Dhu al-Qad‘ah 819/December 1416-January 1417 (Manhal II, f. 359b; Wiet 1487).

Sa‘d al-Din Faraj ibn Majid al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn al-Nahhal, d. Jumada II 865/March-April 1461 (Daw’ VI, p. 169, no. 570; Manhal II, f. 345; Wiet 1461) (twice).

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Skandari al-Misri al-Qibti, known as Ibn Ghurab, d. Rajab 808/December 1405-January 1406(Daw’ I, p. 65; Manhal I, f. 23; Wiet 47) (twice).

Nasir al-Din Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Armani al-Qibti, d. Muharram 881/April-May 1476 (Daw’ VIII, p. 55, no. 70; Manhal III, f. 180; Wiet 2187) (three times).

Mansur ibn al-Safi al-Qibti, d. Shawwal 870/May-June 1466 (Daw’ X, p. 170, no. 716).

Sharaf al-Din Musa ibn Yusuf al-Butiji al-Misri al-Qahiri al-Qibti, known as Ibn Katib Gharib, d. Safar 882/May-June 1477 (Daw’ X, p. 192, no. 810).

Zayn al-Din Yahya ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Qahiri, known as al-Ashqar, d. Rabi‘ I 874/September-October 1469 (Daw’ X, p. 233, no. 983; Manhal III, f. 402b; Wiet 2633) (three times).

Ustadar al-dhakha’ir wa-al-amlak: Overseer of the sultan's treasures and munitions, responsible for inventories of supplies and armaments held in reserve for military campaigns. Also accountable for supervising the sultan's private estate. Rare: the office appears only in this case.

Two positions, 100 percent of two total:

Taqi al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab ibn Abd-Allah al-Misri al-Qibti al-Hanafi, known as Ibn Abi Shakir, d. Dhu al-Qa‘dah 819/December 1416 January 1417 (Daw’ V, p. 102, no. 384) (twice).

Ustadar al-musta’jarat: Overseer of state leases and rents. Based in the Egyptian provinces, or holding accountable subordinate officials who were locally responsible for collecting rents from government properties. Rare: office appeared only in this case.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

The preceding Ibn Abi Shakir.

Ustadar al-waqf: Overseer of pious trust foundations. To be distinguished from the nazir al-awqaf or controller of such endowments, this was a state official directly tied to the Mamluk regime. Responsible for monitoring exchanges, replacements, sales, and alienations of awqaf. In practice, involved with government confiscation of pious endowments. That this office appeared only in the career of an eminent Copt is not coincidental.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

The preceding Ibn Abi Shakir.

Wakil: Commissioner, fiscal agent of the government. Without complement, an official overseeing the state treasury or the special fund.

Two positions, 13 percent of sixteen total: Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd al-Karim al-Qibti al-Misri al- Shafi‘i, known as Ibn Katib Jakam, d. Rabi‘ I 841/September-October 1437 (Daw’ I, p. 68).

Salah al-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim, d. Rajab 895/May-June 1490 (Daw’ VI, p. 283, no. 949).

Wali: Governor of a town or district, usually chief of police. A military office with direct ties to the local populace. Usually held by an amir of secondary or tertiary rank. Prerogatives often used to extort bribes or to oversee government confiscations of property.

Two positions, 13 percent of sixteen:

Fakhr al-Din ‘Abd al-Ghani ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Armani al-Qibti, known as Ibn Abi al-Faraj, d. Shawwal 821/November
1418 (Manhal II, f. 336; Wiet 1442) (twice).

Forty-two positions, 8 percent of 538 total reported in this category in the two dictionaries, were held by persons of Coptic ancestry.

Bureaucratic Offices

Officials in this category served as procedural administrators or consultants in the fiscal and diplomatic bureaus of the Mamluk state. A majority of such bureaus were located in Cairo, the imperial capital, although lesser bureaucracies of similar hierarchical organization were maintained in the Syrian provincial capitals as well. The statistics for personnel in these positions contrasted markedly with those for the military-executive category, dominated as it was by members of the military caste. In the Mamluk state, bureaucrats were rendered dependent on their Mamluk patrons as a matter of royal policy, so as to maximize their service as procurers of information and collectors of revenue. Accordingly, we find high percentages of foreigners (mostly Syrians) and minorities (mostly Muslim Copts) appointed to these posts. The range of offices reported for Copts in the following list attests to their significance in the diwan networks of medieval Egypt.

‘Amil: Factor or collection agent usually of the jizyah (poll tax paid by non-Muslims), or in a religio-academic institution. Subordinate to the supervisor of this department. The title also appears in the literature in connection with other diwans involved with revenue accorded to certain groups. The naqib al-ashraf (syndic of the Prophet's descendants) employed factors in his service. However, the single occurrence of this term without complement suggests its initial meaning.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

Mansur ibn al-Safi al-Qibti, d. Shawwal 870/May-June 1466 (Daw’ X, p. 170, no. 716).

‘Amil al-awqaf: Factor or collection agent serving under either the nazir al-awqaf or, more likely, the overseer (ustadar) of pious trust foundations as a government official. The position appeared only in this case, and was tied to the waqf of a grand amir.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

Mansur ibn al-Safi al-Qibti, d. Shawwal 870/May-June 1466 (Daw’ X, p. 170, no. 716).

Katib (pl.: kuttab): Secretary or scribe in a fiscal diwan. A processor of records and balancer of accounts. Secretaries in Mamluk Egypt, in contrast with muwaqqi‘in (clerks, who had the notarial right of tawqi‘, formal signature), were confined to archival or administrative tasks. But in their sphere of information gathering, including military intelligence and local spy networks, they wielded influence far in excess of their procedural duties. The large bureaus, particularly the diwan al-insha’ (chancellery), which combined the functions of an archive, foreign ministry, and intelligence office, represented the ultimate goals of kuttab. Despite its influence, this office remained an object of scorn and belittlement to many civilian notables. This lack of esteem certainly contributed to the large proportion of Copts, most of whom were at least nominal Muslims, who held the office. Indeed, persons designated as kuttab who claimed Coptic ancestry seem to have been less professionally mobile in a relative sense than other officials in the bureaucratic category. (See Qalqashandi, Subh I, 9, 13, 130-35, 140, 175-80; II, 4, 13, 33, 52, 97, 118, 339, 441-43; III, 150; V, 452; VI, 41.)

Twenty-four positions (without complement), 29 percent of eighty-two total:

Shams al-Din Abu al-Faraj ‘Abd-Allah al-Maqsi al-Qibti, d. Shawwal 755/August-September 1354 (Manhal III, f. 506b; Wiet 2809).

Amn al-Din ‘Abd-Allah ibn Rishah al-Qibti al-Aslami al-Misri, d. 790/1388 (Manhal II, f. 277b; Wiet 1343).

Taj al-Din ‘Abd al-‘Azim ibn Sadaqah al-Qibti al-Aslami, no death date (Daw’ IV, p. 240, no. 620).

Majd al-Din ‘Abd al-Ghani al-Qibti al-Misri, d. Sha‘ban 813/November-December 1410 (Daw’ IV, p. 245, no. 638).

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Katib al-Munakhat, d. Rabi‘ II 852/June-July 1448 (Daw’ IV, p. 313, no. 848) (twice).

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ibn Barakah al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Katib Jakam, d. Rabi‘ I 833/November-December 1249 (Daw’ IV, p. 308, no. 833).

Karim al-Din Abd al-Karim ibn Fakhrah al-Qibti, d. Rajab 855/July-August 1451 (Daw’ IV, p. 231, no. 879).

Taj al-Din ‘Abd al-Razzaq ibn ‘Abd Allah al-Qibti, known as Ibn Katib al-Munakh, d. Jumada I 827/April 1424 (Manhal II, f. 316b; Wiet 1409).

Taj al-Din ‘Abd al-Razzaq ibn Ibrahim al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn al-Haysam, d. 834/1430-1431 (Manhal II, f. 315b; Wiet 1407).

Taj al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab ibn Nasr-Allah al-Qibti al-Aslami, known as al-Shaykh al-Khatir, no. death date (Manhal II, f. 364b; Wiet 1498).

Sa‘d al-Din Abu al-Ghalib Ibrahim al-Qibti, known as Ibn ‘Awid al-Sarraj, d. Rabi‘ II 856/April-May 1452 (Daw’ XI, p. 120, no. 375).

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-Qibti al-Maymuni, known as Ibn al-Najib, d. 795/1392-1393 (Manhal I, p. 99, no. 51; Wiet 51).

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd Al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Muslimi al-Skandari al-Misri, known as Ibn Ghurab, d. Rajab 808/December 1405-January 1406 (Daw’ I, p. 65).

Burhan al-Din Ibrahim ibn Bariyyah al-Qibti al-Muslimi, no death date (Daw’ I, p. 33).

‘Alam al-Din Abu al-Fadl Jallud al-Qibti, d. Dhu al-Qa‘dah 872/May-June 1468 (Daw’ XI, p. 163, no. 515).

Fakhr al-Din Majid ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Aslami al-Skandari, known as Ibn Ghurab, d. 811/1408-1409 (Manhal III, f. 71b; Wiet 1949).

Fakhr al-Din Majid ibn Abi al-Fada‘il al-Qibti, known as Ibn al-Marzuq, d. Rajab 833/March-April 1430 (Daw’ VI, p. 235, no. 812).

Majd al-Din Majid ibn al-Nahhal al-Qibti al-Aslami, d. Dhu al-Hijjah 843/May-June 1440 (Daw’ VI, p. 235, no. 813) (twice).

Khayr al-Din Muhammad ibn Yahya al-Qibti, known as Ibn Fakhirah, d. 899/1493-1494 (Daw’ X, p. 72, no. 245).

Sharaf al-Din ibn Yusuf al-Butiji al-Misri al-Qahiri al-Qibti, known as Ibn Katib Gharib, d. Safar 882/May-June 1477 (Daw’ X, p. 192, no. 810) (twice).

Sharaf al-Din Yahya al-Qibti al-Qahiri, known as Ibn Sani‘ah, d. Muharram 882/April-May 1477 (Daw’ X, p. 268, no. 1061).

Katib al-dawalib: Secretary in the bureau of royal (sugar) mills and presses; accountant of inventories in the state workshops. The position appeared only in this case.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

‘Abd al-‘Azim ibn Dirham wa-Nusf, d. 879/1474-1474 (Daw’ IV, p. 241, no. 622).

Katib al-diwan: Secretary in a fiscal bureau of the government, specifically the diwan al-dawlah (see under nazir al-dawlah). This position was similar to, and may have been an alternative title for, the mustawfi al-dawlah (accountant of finances under the nazir or wazir).

Three positions, 43 percent of seven total:

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ibn Barakah al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Katib Jakam, d. 833/1430 (Manhal II, f. 343; Wiet 1457).

Mansur ibn al-Safi al-Qibti, d. Shawwal 870/May-June 1466 (Daw’ X, p. 170, no. 716).

Sharaf al-Din Musa ibn Yusuf al-Butiji al-Misri al-Qahiri al-Qibti, known as Ibn Katib Gharib, d. Safar 882/May-June 1477 (Daw’ X, p. 192, no. 810).

Katib (diwan) al-jaysh: Secretary in the department of the army, accountant of receipts from land allotments (iqta‘at) in the Egyptian and Syrian provinces used to support the royal Mamluk amirs.

Two positions, 29 percent of seven total:

Muwaffaq al-Din ‘Abd-Allah ibn Ibrahim al-Qibti al-Qahiri, d. Rabi‘ I 877/August-September 1472 (Daw’ V, p. 4, no. 7).

Khayr al-Din Muhammad ibn Yahya al-Qibti, known as Ibn Fakhirah, d. 899/1493-1494 (Daw’ X, p. 72, no. 245).

Katib diwan al-Mamalik: Secretary in the bureau of Mamluks; accountant of funds used to maintain the royal barracks in Cairo (several located in the Qal‘ah or Citadel, others on Rawdah Island or Raydaniyyah) and the provincial capitals.

Four positions, 33 percent of twelve total:

Muwaffaq al-Din ‘Abd-Allah ibn Ibrahim al-Qibti al-Qahiri, d. Rabi‘ I 877/August-September 1472 (Daw’ V, p. 4, no. 7).

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ibn Abi al-Fadl al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Jallud, d. Rajab 881/October-November 1476 (Daw’ IV, p. 316, no. 860).

Taj al-Din ‘Abd al-Razzaq ibn Ibrahim al-Qibti, known as Ibn Katib Jakam, d. Dhu al-Hijjah 834/August-September 1431 (Daw’ IV, p. 191, no. 485).

Sa‘d al-Din Faraj ibn Majid al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn al-Nahhal, d. Jumada II 865/March-April 1461 (Daw’ VI, p. 169, no. 570).

Katib diwan al-mufrad: Secretary in the sultan's special bureau that funded monthly payments to his Mamluk troopers, purchase of their uniforms and equipment, fodder for their mounts, and so forth. In general, this bureau collected revenues from urban properties, markets, port tolls, tariffs, and a variety of taxes—rather than from land allotments, proceeds of which supported amirs and were under the jurisdiction of the diwan al-jaysh.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

Mansur ibn al-Safi al-Qibti, d. Shawwal 870/May-June 1466 (Daw’ X, p. 170, no. 716).

Katib diwan al-murtaja‘at: Secretary in the bureau of reclamation, responsible for assessing and collecting income from estates of Mamluk amirs who died, or were dismissed and/or demoted before the end of the accounting year. This bureau was initially known as the diwan al-sultan (sultan's department), but the title dropped out of use with the expansion of the diwan al-jaysh and the office of ustadar in the later Mamluk period.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

‘Alam al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab ibn Qasis al-Qibti al-Qahiri, d. Muharram 791/December 1388-January 1389 (Manhal II, f. 365b; Wiet 1499).

Katib al-lala: Secretary to the lala, an honorific title (literally "radiant") held by a eunuch amir in the royal household, a guardian
of the princes. The position appeared only in this case.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

Shams al-Din Abu al-Mansur Nasr-Allah al-Qibti al-Qahiri, known as Ibn Katib al-Warshah, d. 850/1446-1447 (Daw’ X, p. 200, no. 854).

Katib al-sirr: Confidential secretary, head of the diwan al-insha’ (royal chancellery). Serving as foreign minister (responsible for informing the sultan about classified state and diplomatic matters) and as senior scribe (responsible for presenting official correspondence to the ruler and supervising the drafting of replies to such correspondence; bearer of the royal seal and securer of the sultan's signature or emblem; director of the royal post and messengers). He also attended the sultan during audiences in the Palace of Justice (Dar al-‘Adl), receiving petitions from the dawadar and working closely with the four chief judges in appeals heard by the throne. One of the most influential civil officials in the realm (the office was duplicated in the provincial capitals and was subordinate to the viceroy or na’ib al-sultan). More foreigners (usually Syrians) held this post than native Cairenes during the fifteenth century, due to the sultan's wish to keep a dependable agent in charge of intelligence. A distinction for a person of Coptic ancestry. (See Qalqashandi, Subh I, 19, 104, 110, 137; III, 487; IV, 19, 29, 30; V, 464; VI, 206-07; XI, 114.)

Three positions, 3 percent of one hundred total:

Karim al-Din Abd al-Karim ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Katib al-Manakhat, d. Rabi‘ II 852/June-July 1448 (Daw’ IV, p. 313, no 848; Manhal II, f. 345; Wiet 1461) (twice).

Fakhr al-Din Majid ibn Abi al-Fada’il al-Qibti, known as Ibn al-Marquq, d. Rajab 833/March-April 1430 (Daw’ VI, p. 235, no. 812).

Katib al-umara’: Secretary to the Mamluk amirs, presumably in the diwan al-Mamalik, bureau of Mamluks (see above).

One position, 100 percent of one total:

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim ibn Fakhr al-Din al-Qibti, d. Rajab 864/May 1460 (Daw’ I, p. 183).

Milk al-umara: Accountant of properties held by Mamluk amirs (presumably as iqta‘). All three references to this post occurred in the careers of Muslim Copts, underscoring the sultan's policy of granting reliable clients supervisory powers over his amirs' estates.

Three positions, 100 percent of three total:

Karim al-Din Abd al-Karim ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti, known as Ibn Katib al-Munakhat, d. Rabi‘ II 852/June-July 1448 (Daw’ IV, p. 313, no. 848; Manhal II, 345; Wiet 1461) (twice).

Nasir al-Din Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti, d. Muharram 881/April-May 1476 (Daw’ VIII, p. 55, no. 70).

Mubashir: Steward, intendant. Serving in a wide range of bureaucratic settings, the mubashir worked under the authority of a nazir or katib to process accounts and generally to maintain institutional functions. Also appears in the sources on occasion as a courier and a precursor who cleared the streets for important officials. Although a subordinate post, the majority of individuals holding it were Muslims of proven lineage. Muslim Copts rarely received the position, attached as it often was to religio-academic institutions as well as the regime's diwans.

One position, 1.5 percent of sixty-six total:

Taj al-Din ‘Abd al-Razzaq ibn ‘Abd-Allah al-Qibti, known as Ibn Katib al-Munakhat, d. Jumada I 827/May 1423 (Daw’ IV, p. 194, no. 495).

Mubashir al-diwan: Steward in the fiscal bureau, specifically the diwan al-dawlah (see under nazir al-dawlah).

Two positions, 13 percent of fifteen total:

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ibn Barakah al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Katib Jakam, d. Rabi‘ I 833/November-December 1429 (Daw’ IV, p. 308, no. 833).

Fakhr al-Din Majid ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Skandari, known as Ibn Ghurab, d. Dhu al-Hijjah 811/April-May 1409 (Daw’ VI, p. 234, no. 811).

Mubashir diwan al-jaysh: Steward in the army bureau that oversaw revenues yielded by land allotments to support the sultan's Mamluk amirs and their retinues.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-Qibti al-Maymuni, d. 795/1392-1393 (Manhal I, p. 99, no. 51; Wiet 51).

Mubashir diwan al-khass: Steward in the special bureau supervising a fund maintained to cover the costs of military expeditions and other related expenses (sometimes translated as the "privy fund").

One position, 100 percent of one total:

Abu al-Ghalid al-Qibti, d. Rabi‘ I 899/February-March 1489 (Daw’ XI, p. 120, no. 376).

Mubashir istifa’ al-mufrad: Steward in the accounts department of the sultan's special bureau disbursing payments to his Mamluk troopers.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

Taj al-Din ‘Abd al-Razzaq ibn ‘Abd-Allah al-Qibti, known as Ibn Katib al-Munakhat, d. Jumada I 827/May 1423 (Daw’ IV, p. 194, no. 495).

Mustawfi: Accountant in a fiscal bureau of the government or a religio-academic institution.

Three positions, 75 percent of four total:

Amin al-Din ‘Abd-Allah ibn al-Taj al-Qibti al-Aslami, d. 740/1339-1340 (Manhal II, f. 262; Wiet 1310).

Taj al-Din ‘Abd al-Razzaq ibn ‘Abd-Allah al-Qibti, known as Ibn Katib al-Munakhat, d. Jumada I 827/April 1424 (Daw’ IV, p. 194, no. 495).

Burhan al-Din Ibrahim ibn Bariyyah al-Qibti al-Muslimi, no death date (Daw’ I, p. 33).

Mustawfi al-dawlah: Accountant in the fiscal bureaus; originally under supervision of the wazir, subsequently answerable to the nazir al-dawlah.

Two positions, 100 percent of two total:

Sharaf al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab ibn Fadl-Allah al-Qibti al-Aslami al-Qahiri, no death date (Manhal II, f. 362; Wiet 1492).

Jamal al-Din Ibrahim al-Qibti al-Aslami al-Qahiri, known as al-Kaffat, d. 745/1344-1345 (Manhal I, f. 45; Wiet 96).

Mustawfi diwan al-jaysh: Accountant in the army bureau, which oversaw revenues yielded by land allotments to support the sultan's Mamluk amirs and their retinues.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

‘Alam al-Din Shakir al-Misri al-Qibti, known as Ibn al-Ji‘an, d. 790/1388 (Manhal II, f. 170; Wiet 1162).

Mustawfi al-khass: Accountant in the sultan's special bureau administering a fund reserved to cover costs of his military campaigns and related expenses incurred by his Mamluks. All references to this post occurred in the careers of Muslim Copts, indicating the prominence of this minority in activities securing the ruler's fiscal solvency and capacity to wage war.

Four positions, 100 percent of four total:

‘Abd al-Ghani ibn al-Haysam al-Qibti, known as Ibn al-Haysam, no death date (Manhal II, f. 335b; Wiet 1441).

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ibn Fakhirah al-Qibti, d. Rajab 855/August-September 1451 (Daw’ IV, p. 321, no. 879).

Taj al-Din ‘Abd al-Razzaq ibn ‘Abd-Allah al-Qibti, known as Ibn Katib al-Munakh, d. Jumada I 837/April 1424 (Manhal II, f. 316b; Wiet 1409).

Majd al-Din Rizq-Allah ibn Fadl-Allah al-Qahiri al-Qibti al-Aslami, d. 740/1339-1340 (Manhal II, f. 97b; Wiet 1031).

Mustawfi al-khizanah: Accountant in the royal wardrobe of the treasury. Responsible for allotting funds to pay for production of robes of honor distributed by sultans during ceremonials recognizing exceptional service or formal promotions (given to both Mamluks and civilians). Robes also were bestowed upon ambassadors and other visiting dignitaries. The position occurred only in this case.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

The preceding Majd al-Din Rizq-Allah.

Mutkallim al-awqaf: Official in the bureau of pious trust foundations, presumably trained in the law of waqf with expertise in matters of sale, replacement, or transfer.

One position, 6 percent of seventeen total:

Nasir al-Din Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti, d. Muharram 881/April-May 1476 (Daw’ VIII, p. 55, no. 70).

Mutakallim al-diwan: Official in the financial bureau, specifically the Diwan al-Dawlah (see under nazir al-dawlah). Duties similar to those of the mubashir but empowered to decide procedural legal matters concerning collection and expenditure of revenues.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

Taj al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab ibn Nasr-Allah al-Qibti al-Aslami, known as al-Shaykh al-Khatir, d. Dhu al-Qa‘dah 865/August-September 1461 (Daw’ V, p. 114, no. 408).

Mutakallim al-mukus: Official in the bureau of tolls, imposts, and market dues.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

‘Abd al-Basit ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-Qibti, known as al-Katib al-Maysam, d. Sha‘ban 892/July-August 1487 (Daw’ IV, p. 28, no. 86).

Muwaqqi‘: Clerk, scribe. In contrast with the katib, this official had the prerogative of tawqi‘, the official right of signature, seal, or other insignia legally certifying documents. This prerogative was granted only to individuals who had received formal training in the Islamic sciences. A distinction for persons of Coptic ancestry.

Three positions, 2.6 percent of 116 total:

Amin al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd al-Ghani al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn al-Haysam, d. Rabi‘ II 859/March-April 1454 (Daw’ I, p. 67).

Sharaf al-Din Yahya al-Qibti al-Qahiri, known as Ibn Sani‘ah, d. Muharram 882/April-May 1477 (Daw’ X, p. 268, no. 1061) (twice).

Muwaqqi‘ al-dast: Scribe of the royal bench in the Palace of Justice (Dar al-‘Adl). Responsible for composing and sealing in the sultan's presence edicts, deeds, letters of appointment, and correspondence.

One position, 4 percent of twenty-eight total:

Majd al-Din Fadl-Allah ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Misri al-Qibti al-Hanafi, known as Ibn Makanis, d. Rabi‘ II 822/April-May 1419 (Daw’ VI, p. 172, no. 581).

Muwaqqi‘ diwan al-insha: Scribe in the imperial chancellery.

One position, 8 percent of thirteen total:

The preceding Ibn Makanis.

Nazir: Fiscal controller, supervisor. This office evolved from the overseer of revenues yielded by charitable trusts (awqaf) to fiscal administrator of a government bureau or budget director of a religio-academic institution such as a mosque, madrasah (school), or Sufi hospice in the Egyptian Mamluk period. Relatively few persons of Coptic ancestry held posts in the latter capacity, but they appeared frequently in the former. The supervisory powers of a nazir over a fiscal bureau enabled him to process large revenues. In virtually all cases, he was to siphon a percentage of such monies into a private fund reserved for his patron, the sultan or grand amir who had appointed him. Most nuzzar were compelled to share their authority with a cosupervisor, often titled sahib and usually of Mamluk origin, who checked to see that he was performing his clandestine function to his employer's satisfaction. (See Qalqashandi, Subh V, 465; IX, 257-58.)

Three positions, 2 percent of 169 total:

Shams al-Din Inbrahim ibn ‘Abd-Allah al-Qibti, known as Katib Arnan, d. Sha‘ban 798/May-June 1396 (Manhal I, p. 57, no. 31; Wiet 31).

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Skandari al-Misri al-Qibti, known as Ibn Ghurab, d. Rajab 808/December 1405-January 1406 (Daw’ I, p. 65).

Fakhr al-Din Majid ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Skandari, known as Ibn Ghurab, d. Dhu al-Hijjah 811/April-May 1409 (Daw’ VI, p. 234, no. 811).

Nazir al-aswaq: Supervisor of markets, specifically the horse and slave markets. Distinct from the muhtasib or inspector of weights and measures in the markets, to which no person of Coptic background was appointed in this survey. The latter was a legal official, selected from the persons of proven Muslim lineage and formal training in the Shari‘ah. The former was a revenue collector in state employ and subordinate to the executive secretary (dawadar) and the wazir.

One position, 33 percent of three total:

‘Alam al-Din Yahya al-Qibti al-Misri, d. Rajab 835/March-April 1432 (Manhal III, f. 508; Wiet 2813).

Nazir al-awqaf: Supervisor of pious trust foundations. Appointed in Cairo by the sultan, in the provincial capitals by the viceroy (na’ib al-sultan). This official regulated expenditures made by budget supervisors of local charitable institutions, heard appeals contesting their practices, and arbitrated disputes between staff and descendants of donors. Even though his duties were often more symbolic than real, this official was regarded as especially prone to corruption and bribery. Therefore his character was to show no blemish, his religious convictions no deviance whatsoever. Accordingly, only devout believers were appointed, and this single reference to a Muslim Copt, attached to a specific foundation (Sarghatmishiyyah Madrasah), proves that few converts or their descendants held the post.

One position, 2 percent of fifty-two total:

Ibrahim ibn Fakhr al-Din al-Qibti, known as Ibn al-Sukkar wa-al-Laymun, d. Rajab 864/May 1460 (Daw’ I, p. 183).

Nazir al-bandar: Supervisor of the port. The post first appears for the port of Alexandria, but after the monopolies imposed by Sultan Barsbay (825-841/1422-1437), the official appears in the Red Sea ports controlled by the regime.

Three positions, 100 percent of three total:

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Katib al-Munakhat, d. Rabi‘ II 852/June-July 1448 (Manhal II, f. 345; Wiet 1461) (twice).

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim al-Qibti al-Nasiri al-Muslimi, known as Ibn al-Mar’a, d. Rabi‘ II 844/August-September 1440 (Daw’ I, p. 184).

Nazir diwan al-dawlah: Supervisor of the financial bureaus, in theory he shared authority with the wazir and cosigned all fiscal directives with him; in practice he gradually superseded him. This individual directed an umbrella department overseeing the other fiscal bureaus, all of which had to report their accounts at regular intervals. Also, royal instruments of appointment to fiscal offices were composed here; and the department paid out annual, monthly, and daily stipends to officials in the other government bureaus as well as the civil judiciary. (See Qalqashandi, Subh IV, 29; XI, 117.) Holders of this office were among the most influential bureaucrats of the Mamluk state, but they competed with their counterparts in the diwan al-khass or diwan al-mufrad, unless the sultan allowed one individual to take them over jointly. Muslim Copts held a majority of these posts.

Twenty-one positions, 62 percent of thirty-four total:

Shams al-Din ��Abd-Allah al-Maqsi al-Qibti, d. Sha‘ban 755/August-September 1354 (Manhal, f. 506b; Wiet 2809).

Amin al-Din ‘Abd-Allah ibn Rishah al-Qibti al-Aslami al-Misri, d. 790/1388 (Manhal II, f. 277b; Wiet 1343).

Amin al-Din ‘Abd-Allah ibn al-Taj al-Qibti al-Aslami, d. 740/1339-1340 (Manhal II, f. 262; Wiet 1310).

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Makanis, d. Jumada II 803/January-February 1401 (Daw’ IV, p. 312, no. 846).

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ibn Barakah al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Katib Jakam, d. Rabi‘ II 833/December 1429-January 1430 (Daw’ IV, p. 308, no. 833; Manhal II, f. 343; Wiet 1457) (twice).

Fakhr al-Din ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Hanafi al-Qahiri, known as Ibn Makanis, d. Dhu al-Hijjah 794/October-November 1392 (Manhal II, f. 290; Wiet 1370).

Taj al-Din Fadl-Allah al-Ramli al-Qibti, d. Safar 826/January-February 1423 (Daw’ VI, p. 173, no. 585; Manhal II, f. 521; Wiet 1795) (twice).

Fakhr al-Din ibn al-Sukkar wa-al-Laymun al-Qibti, d. 875/1470-1471 (Daw’ XI, p. 164, no. 520) (twice).

Sa‘d al-Din Faraj ibn Majid al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn al-Nahhal, d. Jumada II 865/March-April 1461 (Daw’ VI, p. 169, no. 570).

Jamal al-Din Ibrahim al-Qahiri al-Qibti al-Aslami, d. 745/1344-1345 (Manhal I, f. 45; Wiet 96).

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim al-Qibti al-Nasiri al-Muslimi, known as Ibn al-Mar’ah, d. Rabi‘ II 844/August-September 1440 (Daw’ I, p. 184).

Amin al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd al-Ghani al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn al-Haysam, d. Rabi‘ II 859/March-April 1455 (Daw’ I, p. 67; Manhal I, p. 93, no. 49; Wiet 49) (twice).

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim ibn Barakah al-Misri al-Qibti, known as al-Bashiri, d. Safar 818/April-May 1415 (Daw’ I, p. 33).

Shams al-Din Nasr-Allah al-Qibti al-Aslami, known as Ibn al-Najjar, no death date (Daw’ X, p. 200, no. 855) (twice).

Zayn al-Din Yahya ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Misri al-Qahiri, known as al-Ashqar, d. Rabi‘ II 874/September-October 1469 (Daw’ X, p. 223, no. 983; Manhal III, f. 402b; Wiet 2633) (twice).

Nazir al-istabl: Supervisor of the royal stables, responsible for distributing revenues designated to maintain the royal cavalry housed in the Citadel complex (near the Maydan al-Rumaylah). He administered purchases of fodder and harness, as well as payment of wages to grooms and stable attendants.

Nine positions, 41 percent of twenty-two total:

Amin al-Din ‘Abd-Allah ibn Abi al-Faraj al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Taj al-Din Musa, d. Jumada II 844/October-November 1440(Daw’ V, p. 41, no. 155; Manhal II, f. 256; Wiet 1297) (twice).

Taj al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab ibn Nasr-Allah al-Qibti al-Aslami, known as al-Shaykh al-Khatir, d. Dhu al-Qa‘dah 865/August-September 1461 (Daw’ V, p. 114, no. 408; Manhal II, f. 364b; Wiet 1498) (twice).

Sa‘d al-Din Faraj ibn Majid al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn al-Nahhal, d. Jumada II 865/February-March 1461 (Daw’ VI, p. 169, no. 570).

Fakhr al-Din Majid ibn Ab al-Fada’il al-Qibti, known as Ibn Marzuq, d. Rajab 833/March-April 1430 (Daw’ VI, p. 235, no. 812).

Shams al-Din Abu al-Mansur Nasr-Allah al-Qibti al-Qahiri, d. 850/1466-1447 (Daw’ X, p. 200, no. 845).

Zayn al-Din Yahya ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Qahiri, known as al-Ashqar, d. Rabi‘ I 874/September-October 1469 (Daw’ X, p. 233, no. 983; Manhal III, f. 402b; Wiet 2633) (twice).

Nazir al-jaysh: Supervisor of the army bureau administering the grant of, and receipts collected from, all military land allotments in Egypt and Syria. An exceedingly influential official because of his discretionary powers over personnel (Mamluk amirs) who received land in return for service, and who often attempted to transfer it to their own heirs, in defiance of the state's right of alienation upon their death, dismissal, or retirement. The prominence of Muslim Copts placed in this office suggests the ruler's concern about bribery and corruption over distribution of the royal fisc. He sought to appoint individuals who were dependent upon him for their security and professional advancement. (See Qalqashandi, Subh IV, 17, 30, 190 [relationship with trust properties in Damascus]; VI, 61; XI, 89, 93.)

Fifteen positions, 18 percent of eighty-two total:

‘Alam al-Din ‘Abd-Allah ibn Ahmad al-Qibti al-Misri, d. 755/1354-1355 (Manhal II, f. 257; Wiet 1301).

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Skandari al-Misri al-Muslimi, known as Ibn Ghurab, d. Rajab 808/December 1405-January 1406 (Daw’ I, p. 65; Manhal I, p. 85, no. 47; Wiet 37) (four times).

Jamal al-Din Ibrahim al-Qibti al-Aslami, known as Jamal al-Din al-Kaffat, d. 745/1344-1345 (Manhal I, f. 45; Wiet 96).

Fakhr al-Din Majid ibn Abi al-Fada’il al-Qibti, known as Ibn al-Marzuq, d. Rajab 833/March-April 1430 (Daw’ VI, p. 235, no. 812).

Nasir al-Din Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Armani al-Qibti, no death date (Manhal III, f. 180; Wiet 2187).

Fakhr al-Din Muhammad ibn Fadl-Allah al-Nasrani al-Qibti al-Qahiri al-Aslami, d. 732/1331-1332 (Manhal III, f. 240b; Wiet 2311).

Shams al-Din Musa ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-Misri al-Qibti, d. 771/1369-1370 (Manhal III, f. 373; Wiet 2554) (twice).

Sharaf al-Din Musa ibn Yusuf al-Karaki al-Qibti al-Shawbaki, no death date (Manhal III, f. 379; Wiet 2571) (three times).

Jamal al-Din Yusuf ibn ‘Abd al-Karim al-Qibti al-Shafi‘i, known as Ibn Katib Jakam, d. Dhu al-Hijjah 862/October-November 1458(Manhal III, f. 459; Wiet 2710).

Nazir al-khass (diwan al-): Supervisor of the sultan's special bureau administering a fund reserved to cover costs of military campaigns and other related expenses incurred by his Mamluks. This official assumed many of the duties of the wazir. Its incumbent was usually a close associate of the ruler, and he recommended the names of candidates for high-level bureaucratic posts to his patron. He also supplanted the supervisor of the royal repository (nazir al-khizanah) from the reign of Barquq (784-801/1382-1399). But during the Circassian period, his responsibilities were reduced as the nazir al-mufrad and the ustadar enlarged their spheres of influence. Ultimately, the nazir al-khass was responsible primarily for supplying robes of honor for court ceremonials. (See Qalqashandi, Subh IV, 30; VI, 44, 200-01, 216; VIII, 231; XI, 89, 93, 316.)

Twenty-seven positions, 50 percent of fifty-five total:

‘Alam al-Din ‘Abd-Allah ibn Ahmad al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Zunbur, d. 755/1354-1355 (Manhal II, f. 257; Wiet 1301).

Fakhr al-Din ‘Abd-Allah ibn Musa al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Taj al-Din, d. 776/1374-1375 (Manhal II, f. 276b; Wiet 1340).

‘Abd al-Ghani ibn Haysam al-Qibti, known as Ibn al-Haysam, no death date (Manhal II, f. 335b; Wiet 1441) (twice).

Majd al-Din ‘Abd al-Ghani ibn Ibrahim al-Qibti al-Misri, d. Sha‘ban 813/November-December 1410 (Daw’ IV, p. 245, no. 638).

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ibn Barakah al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Katib Jakam, d. Rabi‘ I 833/November-December 1429 (Daw’ IV, p. 308, no. 833; Manhal II, f. 343; Wiet 1457) (twice).

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq, known as Ibn Makanis, d. Jumada II 803/January-February 1401 (Daw’ IV, p. 312, no. 846; Manhal II, f. 344; Wiet 1460) (twice).

Taqi al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab ibn ‘Abd-Allah (Majid) al-Qibti al-Misri al-Hanafi, known as Ibn Abi Shakir, d. Dhu al-Qa‘dah 819/December 1416-January 1417 (Daw’ V, p. 102, no. 384; Manhal II, f. 359b; Wiet 1487) (twice).

Sharaf al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab ibn Fadl-Allah al-Qibti al-Aslami al-Qahiri, no death date (Manhal II, f. 362; Wiet 1492).

Jamal al-Din Ibrahim al-Qibti al-Aslami, known as Jamal al-Kaffat, d. 745/1344-1345 (Manhal I, f. 45; Wiet 96).

Amin al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd al-Ghani al-Qibti, known as Ibn al-Haysam, d. Safar 859/January-February 1455 (Manhal I, p. 93, no. 49; Wiet 49).

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd al-Karim al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Jakam, d. Rabi‘ I 841/September-October 1437 (Daw’ I, p. 68; Manhal I, p. 96, no. 50; Wiet 50) (twice).

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Skandari al-Misri al-Qibti al-Muslimi, known as Ibn Ghurab, d. Rajab 808/1405-1406 (Daw’ I, p. 65; Manhal I, p. 85, no. 47; Wiet 47) (four times).

Fakr al-Din Majid ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Skandari, known as Ibn Ghurab, d. Dhu al-Hijjah 811/April-May 1409 (Daw’ VI, p. 234, no. 811; Manhal III, f. 71b; Wiet 1949) (twice).

Fakhr al-Din Majid ibn Qarwinah al-Qibti al-Aslami, d. Jumada I 768/January-February 1367 (Manhal III, f. 72b; Wiet 1951).

Shams al-Din Musa ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-Misri al-Qibti, d. 771/1369-1370 (Manhal III, f. 373; Wiet 2554) (twice).

‘Alam al-Din Yahya al-Qibti al-Misri, d. Rajab 835/March-April 1432 (Manhal III, f. 508; Wiet 2813).

Jamal al-Din Yusuf ibn ‘Abd al-Karim al-Shafi‘i al-Qibti, known as Ibn Katib Jakam, d. Dhu al-Hijjah 862/October-November 1458(Manhal III, f. 459; Wiet 2710).

Nazir al-khizanah (al-kabir): Supervisor of the royal repository of robes in the Citadel. His duties were gradually supplanted by the nazir al-khass.

Two positions, 33 percent of six total:

Amin al-Din ‘Abd-Allah ibn Abi al-Faraj al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Taj al-Din Musa, d. Jumada II 844/October-November 1440(Daw’ V, p. 41, no. 155).

Shams al-Din Musa ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-Misri al-Qibti, d. 771/1369-1370 (Manhal III, f. 373; Wiet 2554).

Nazir al-mufrad (diwan al-): Supervisor of the special bureau established to support the sultan's Mamluks, responsible for paying their stipends and ordering their clothing, fodder, and so on. Revenues set aside for this department were collected from tolls and market taxes in provincial towns, plus several customs duties. The department became prominent during the sultanate of Barquq (784-801/1382-1399), who purchased large numbers of Mamluk troopers. A majority of those posts were held by Muslim Copts.

Eighteen positions, 75 percent of twenty-four total:

Taj al-Din ‘Abd al-‘Azim ibn Sadaqah al-Qibti al-Aslami, d. 844/1440-1441 (Daw’ IV, p. 240, no. 620; Manhal II, f. 333; Wiet 1437) (twice).

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Katib al-Munakhat, d. Rabi‘ II 852/June-July 1448 (Daw’ IV, p. 313, no. 848; Manhal II, f. 345; Wiet 1461) (twice).

Taj al-Din ‘Abd al-Razzaq ibn ‘Abd-Allah al-Qibti, known as Ibn Katib al-Munakhat, d. Jumada I 827/April 1424 (Daw’ IV, p. 194, no. 495; Manhal II, f. 316b; Wiet 1409) (twice).

Taj al-Din ‘Abd al-Razzaq ibn Ibrahim al-Qibti, known as Ibn al-Haysam, d. Dhu al-Hijjah 834/August-September 1431 (Daw’ IV, p. 191, no. 485; Manhal II, f. 315b; Wiet 1407) (twice).

Taqi al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab ibn ‘Abd-Allah (Majid) al-Qibti al-Hanaif, known as Ibn Abi Shakir, d. Dhu al-Qa‘dah 819/December 1416-January 1417 (Daw’ V, p. 102, no. 384; Manhal II, f. 359b; Wiet 1487) (twice).

Fakhr al-Din ibn al-Sukkar wa-al-Laymun al-Qibti, d. 875/1470-1471 (Daw’ XI, p. 164, no. 520).

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim al-Nasiri al-Qibti al-Muslimi, known as Ibn al-Mar’ah, d. Rabi‘ II 844/August-September 1440 (Daw’ I, p. 184).

Amin al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd al-Ghani al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn al-Haysam, d. Rabi‘ II 859/March-April 1455 (Daw’ I, p. 67).

Mansur ibn al-Safi al-Qibti, d. Shawwal 870/May-June 1466 (Daw’ X, p. 179, no. 716).

Sharaf al-Din Musa ibn Yusuf al-Butiji al-Misri al-Qahiri al-Qibti, d. Safar 882/May-June 1477 (Daw’ X, p. 192, no. 810).

Zayn al-Din Yahya ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Qahiri, known as al-Ashqar, d. Rabi‘ I 874/September-October 1469 (Daw’ X, p. 233, no. 983; Manhal III, f. 402b; Wiet 2633) (three times).

Sahib al-diwan: Intendant of a fiscal bureau, sharing authority with a supervisor or nazir. Title undesignated but presumably the department of the army (jaysh).

One position, 50 percent of two total:

Fakhr al-Din ‘Abd-Allah ibn Musa al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Taj al-Din, d. 776/1374-1375 (Manhal II, f. 276b; Wiet 1340).

Sahib diwan al-ashraf: Intendant of the bureau for revenues accruing to the Prophet's descendants. An individual appointed to this office served as a supervisory agent of the regime, sharing his authority (as a regulator) with the naqib al-ashraf, who was more autonomous although also appointed by the sultan. This department was open to bribery due to the claims persons with proven Hashimi genealogies could make on the state treasury. Forgeries were inevitable, and the sahib was responsible for calling the naqib to account, since the latter identified with the ‘ulama’. No Muslim Copt held the latter office, but the only reference to the former occurred in a Copt's career.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

Muwaffaq al-Din ‘Abd-Allah ibn Ibrahim al-Qibti al-Qahiri, d. Rabi‘ I 877/August-September 1472 (Daw’ V, p. 4, no. 7).

Sahib diwan al-jaysh: Intendant of the Army Bureau. Technically subordinate to the supervisor (nazir) of this department, in practice the sahib acted as a regulator of the former and was answerable directly to the regime for revenues yielded by land allotments granted by the sultan to support his Mamluk officers. From a fiscal perspective, this was one of the more important offices in the bureaucratic hierarchy.

One position, 25 percent of four total:

Fakhr al-Din ‘Abd al-Ghani al-Qibti, known as Ibn Bint al-Mulki, d. Rajab 848/October-November 1444 (Daw’ IV, p. 251, no. 653).

Wazir: During the Abbasid period, prime minister after the caliph, his alter ego, supervisor of the tax bureaus and chancellery. Under the Fatimid caliphs and Ayyubid sultans of Egypt, this official enjoyed similar sweeping powers, subordinate only to the ruler. But under the Mamluk sultans, and especially from the reign of al-Zahir Barquq (d. 801/1399), the position gradually diminished, and was no longer ranked as "office of the sword" (and thus rarely devolved on a Mamluk amir). Various former functions were progressively assumed by fiscal intendants (nuzzar) who now directed the financial bureaus (Diwan al-Mal, Diwan al-Dawlah) and a special fund established for the sultan's military expenses (Diwan al-Khass). The wazir's previous chancellory prerogatives were assumed by a confidential secretary (katib al-sirr), and his former close association with the autocrat was now maintained by a majordomo (ustadar), usually a Mamluk grand amir and colleague of the sultan. Thus, by the later Middle Ages, the vizierate in Egypt was restricted largely to collection of certain specific taxes and duties—a procedural rather than an executive office. As the vizierate declined in authority, the percentage of Copts appointed to it steadily increased. The resultant burgeoning of references to Copts therefore parallels a progressive erosion of the office's authority while also suggesting the officeholder's rising dependence on the regime's autocratic powers to perform his duties. Later Mamluk sultans were prone to place Copts in lucrative but vulnerable positions to assure a flow of revenues directly to their coffers through confiscation and other pressure tactics. The rate of arrest for persons holding the vizierate exceeded 50 percent during the fifteenth century, according to biographical records. (See al-Maqrizi, Khitat II, 58, 223-26; Qalqashandi, Subh IV, 28-33.)

Forty-nine positions, 53 percent of ninety-two total:

Shams al-Din ‘Abd-Allah al-Maqsi al-Qibti, d. Sha‘ban 755/August-September 1354 (Manhal III, f. 506b; Wiet 2809).

‘Alam al-Din ‘Abd-Allah ibn Ahmad al-Qibti al-Misri, d. 755/1354-1355 (Manhal II, f. 257; Wiet 1301).

Fakhr al-Din Abd-Allah ibn Musa al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Taj al-Din, d. 776/1374-1375 (Manhal II, f. 276b; Wiet 1340).

Karim al-Din ‘Abd-Allah ibn Shakir al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn al-Ghannam, d. Shawwal 823/October-November 1420 (Daw’ V, p. 21, no. 73).

Amin al-Din ‘Abd-Allah ibn al-Taj al-Qibti al-Aslami, d. 740/1339-1340 (Manhal II, f. 262; Wiet 1310).

Fakhr al-Din ‘Abd al-Ghani ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Armani al-Qibti al-Qahiri, d. Shawwal 821/November 1418 (Manhal II, f. 336; Wiet 1442).

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim al-Qibti al-Misri, d. 784/1382-1383 (Manhal II, f. 349b; Wiet 1465).

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ibn Abd al-Razzaq, known as Ibn Makanis, d. Jumada II 803/January-February 1401 (Daw’ IV, p. 312, no. 846; Manhal II, f. 344; Wiet 1460) (twice).

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Katib al-Munakhat, d. Rabi‘ II 852/June-July 1448 (Daw’ IV, p. 313, no. 848; Manhal II, f. 345; Wiet 1461) (three times).

Fakhr al-Din ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Hanafi al-Qahiri, known as Ibn Makanis, d. Dhu al-Hijjah 794/October-November 1392 (Manhal II, f. 290; Wiet 1370).

Taj al-Din ‘Abd al-Razzaq ibn ‘Abd-Allah al-Qibti, known as Ibn Katib al-Munakhat, d. Jumada I 827/March-April 1425 (Daw’ IV, p. 194, no. 495; Manhal II, f. 316b; Wiet 1409) (twice).

Taj al-Din ‘Abd al-Razzaq ibn Ibrahim al-Qibti, known as Ibn al-Haysam, d. Dhu al-Hijjah 834/August-September 1431 (Daw’ IV, p. 191, no. 485; Manhal II, f. 315b; Wiet 1407) (twice).

Muwaffaq al-Din Abu al-Faraj ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-Qibti al-Misri al-Aslami, d. Rabi‘ II 796/February-March 1394 (Manhal III, f. 506b; Wiet 2810).

Taq al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab ibn ‘Abd-Allah (Majid) al-Qibti al-Misri al-Hanafi, known as Ibn Abi Shakir, d. Dhu al-Qa‘dah 819/December 1416-January 1417 (Daw’ V, p. 102, no. 384; Manhal II, f. 359b; Wiet 1487) (three times).

Taj al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab ibn Nasr-Allah al-Qibti al-Aslami, known as al-Shaykh al-Khatir, d. Dhu al-Qa‘dah 865/August-September 1461 (Daw’ V, p. 114, no. 408; Manhal II, f. 364b; Wiet 1498) (twice).

‘Alam al-Din ‘Abd al-Wahhab ibn Qasis al-Qibti al-Qahiri, known as al-Katib al-Sayyidi, d. Muharram 791/December 1388-January 1389 (Manhal II, f. 365b; Wiet 1499) (twice).

Taj al-Din Fadl-Allah al-Ramli al-Qibti, d. Safar 826/January-February 1423 (Daw’ VI, p. 173, no. 585).

Fakhr al-Din ‘Abd-Allah ibn Musa al-Qibti al-Misri, d. 776/1374-1375 (Manhal II, f. 276b; Wiet 1340) (three times).

Sa‘d al-Din Faraj ibn Majid al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn al-Nahhal, d. Jumada II 865/March-April 1461 (Daw’ VI, p. 169, no. 570).

Shams al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd-Allah al-Qibti, d. Sha‘ban 798/May-June 1369 (Manhal I, p. 57, no. 31; Wiet 31).

Amin al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd al-Ghani al-Qibti, known as Ibn al-Haysam, d. Safar 859/January-February 1455 (Manhal I, p. 93, no. 49; Wiet 49) (twice).

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd al-Karim al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Katib Jakam, d. Rabi‘ I 841/September-October 1437 (Daw’ I, p. 68; Manhal I, p. 96, no. 50; Wiet 50) (twice).

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Skandari al-Misri al- Qibti al-Muslimi, known as Ibn Ghurab, d. Rajab 808/December 1405-January 1406 (Daw’ I, p. 65; Manhal I, p. 85, no. 47; Wiet 47) (twice).

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim ibn Barakah al-Misri al-Qibti, known as al-Bashiri, d. Safar 818/April-May 1415 (Daw’ I, p. 33; Manhal I, p. 44, no. 23; Wiet 23) (twice).

Fakhr al-Din Majid ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Skandari, known as Ibn Ghurab, d. Dhu al-Hijjah 811/April-May 1409 (Daw’ VI, p. 234; Manhal III, f. 71b; Wiet 1949) (twice).

Fakhr al-Din Majid ibn Qarwinah al-Qibti al-Aslami, d. Jumada I 768/January-February 1367 (Manhal III, f. 72b; Wiet 1951).

Mansur ibn al-Safi al-Qibti, d. Shawwal 870/May-June 1466 (Daw’ X, p. 170, no. 716).

Shams al-Din Nasr-Allah al-Qibti al-Aslami, known as Ibn al-Najjar, no death date (Daw’ X. p. 200, no. 855).

Sa‘d al-Din Nasr-Allah al-Qibti al-Aslami al-Qahiri, known as Ibn al-Baqari, d. Jamada II 799/March 1397 (Manhal III, f. 383; Wiet 2568) (twice).

‘Alam al-Din Yahya al-Qibti al-Misri, d. Rajab 835/March-April 1432 (Manhal III, f. 508; Wiet 2813).

Sharaf al-Din Yahya al-Qibti al-Qahiri, known as Ibn Sani‘ah, d. Muharram 882/April-May 1477 (Daw’ X, p. 268, no. 1061) (twice).

Jamal al-Din Yusif ibn ‘Abd al-Karim al-Qibti al-Shafi‘i, known as Ibn Katib Jakam, d. Dhu al-Hijjah 862/October-November 1458 (Manhal III, f. 459; Wiet 2710).

In this category 228 positions, 22 percent of 1,039 total reported in the two dictionaries, were held by persons of Coptic ancestry.

Artisan-Service Occupations

In contrast with their prominence in the diwans of the Mamluk regime, relatively few persons of Coptic origin engaged in the myriad crafts or manufacturing trades reported in the biographical literature of the later Middle Ages (fourteenth and fifteenth centuries). Their representation among the mercantile networks of Cairo also was surprisingly minimal, especially in light of the regime's sporadic attempts to place the transfer of luxury foreign products, such as spices from south Asia, under state monopoly. More than two hundred references to merchants appeared in the survey (cf. Petry, pp. 242-46). One kind of occupation that Copts sought frequently involved personal service (khidmah), either in a bureau of the government or in the household of a grand amir or other eminent official.

Bazzaz: Draper, cloth merchant. Dealing primarily in apparel items rather than elaborately embroidered decorative pieces designed for ceremonials or uniforms.

One position, 5 percent of twenty-two total:

Ibrahim ibn Mubarak al-Dhahli al-Shaybani al-Qibti, born 839/1435-1436 (Daw’ I, p. 118).

Khadim (pl. khuddam): Servant. One usage suggests domestic employment in a bureau or household with no designation of literary training. The other implies some degree of skill in accountancy, especially when preceding al-diwan. Usually an initial position, mentioned at the beginning of an individual's career. The specialized usage of khadim tied to a religious institution (such as khadim al- jami‘ or khadim al-masjid), indicating status as a pilgrim or Sufi mystic, does not apply to these cases, none of which were associated with religious service.

Eleven positions, 5 percent of 224 total:

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ibn Barakah al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Katib Jakam, d. 833/1429-1430 (Manhal II, f. 343; Wiet 1457).

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim al-Qibti al-Nasiri al-Muslimi, known as Ibn al-Mar’ah, d. Rabi‘ II 844/August-September 1440 (Daw’ I, p. 184).

Shams al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd-Allah al-Qibti, known as Katib Arnan, d. Sha‘ban 798/May-June 1396 (Manhal I, p. 57, no. 31; Wiet 31).

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Aslami al-Qibti al-Skandari, known as Ibn Ghurab, d. Rajab 808/December 1405-January 1406 (Manhal I, p. 85, no. 47; Wiet 47) (twice).

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim ibn Barakah al-Misri al-Qibti, known as al-Bashiri, d. Safar 818/April-May 1415 (Daw’ I, p. 33) (twice).

Majd al-Din Majid al-Qibti al-Nasrani al-Aslami, d. Dhu al-Hijjah 843/May-June 1440 (Daw’ VI, p. 235, no. 813; Manhal III, f. 73; Wiet 1952) (three times).

Shams al-Din Nasr-Allah al-Qibti al-Aslami al-Qahiri, known as Ibn al-Najjar, no death date (Daw’ X, p. 200, no. 855).

Khadim al-diwan (pl. al-dawawin): Servant in a financial bureau, presumably the Diwan al-Dawlah or bureau of revenues (see nazir al-dawlah). This was an entry-level position suggesting apprenticeship in bookkeeping and secretarial skills.

Three positions, 75 percent of four total:

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim al-Qibti al-Nasiri al-Muslimi, known as Ibn al-Mar’ah, d. Rabi‘ II 844/August-September 1440 (Daw’ I, p. 184).

Shams al-Din Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd-Allah al-Qibti, known as Katib Arnan, d. Sha‘ban 798/May-June 1396 (Manhal I, p. 57; Wiet 31).

Shams al-Din Nasr-Allah al-Qibti al-Aslami, known as Ibn al-Najjar, no death date (Daw’ X, p. 200, no. 855).

Khadim al-diwan al-sultani: Servant in the "Sultan's Department," referring to the Bureau of Reclaims responsible for collecting income from estates of Mamluk amirs who died, or were dismissed and/or demoted before the end of the accounting year (see Katib diwan al-murtaja’at). The position occurred only in this case.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

Karim al-Din ‘Abd al-Karim ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Misri, known as Ibn Makanis, d. 803/1400-1401 (Manhal II, f. 344; Wiet 1460).

Tajir lil-awlad: "Merchant to youths"; in this context, a dealer in children's garments (fararij), as his father had been. Subsequently involved in the East-West trade in spices, the holder of this title was prosperous and founded a madrasah. Whether the term awlad connoted dealings with the awlad al-Nas (descendants of Mamluks) is unclear from the biography.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

Badr al-Din Hasan ibn Suwayd al-Misri al-Qibti al-Maliki, known as Ibn Suwayd, d. Safar 829/December 1425-January 1426 (Daw’ III, p. 101, no. 406).

Tajir al-firanj: "Merchant of the Franks." Dealt with European merchants in the import-export trade of luxury goods. In this case, the individual served as a customs inspector in the port of Tarablus, regulating tariffs on cotton sold to Europeans. That this single reference to such a position appeared in a Muslim Copt's career is noteworthy.

One position, 100 percent of one total:

Sa‘d al-Din Ibrahim al-Nasiri al-Qibti al-Muslimi, known as Ibn al-Mar’ah, d. Rabi‘ II 844/August-September 1440 (Daw’ I, p. 184).

Zi’baqi: Dealer in mercury (R. Dozy, Supplément aux dictionnaires arabes I, pp. 576-77).

One position, 100 percent of one total:

Ibrahim ibn Mubarak al-Dhahli al-Shaybani al-Qibti, born 839/1435-1436 (Daw’ I, p. 118).

Nineteen positions, 7 percent of 254 total in this category reported in the two dictionaries, were held by persons of Coptic ancestry.

Literary, Scholarly, and Religious Offices or Titles

Positions in this category, along with specialists in revealed law (Shari‘ah), constituted the foundation of the ‘ulama’, the civil literary elite of premodern Egypt. Since few persons of Christian origin held offices or received titles in this broad field, and none in the legal disciplines, representation of Muslim Copts among the learned establishment of Mamluk Egypt (1250-1517) was insignificant. In theory, Islam is an egalitarian faith with no provision for discrimination among believers, regardless of previous confessional orientation or heritage. But in practice, Coptic converts to Islam or their descendants seem to have been largely excluded from the mainstream of Muslim intellectual life under the Mamluk regime. Yet the occurrence of the following examples, sparse as they may be among the myriad religious and scholarly offices reported in the sources, does prove that entry into the ‘ulama’ class was possible for a few members of the Muslim Coptic community.

Adib: Man of letters. Connotes accomplishment in the literary arts similar to the title sha‘ir. The tenth form usage of this root, ista’daba, to take on someone as a preceptor (R. Dozy, Supplément aux dictionnaires arabes I, 14), did not appear in this case.

One reference, 5 percent of nineteen total:

Fakhr al-Din ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Hanafi al-Qahiri, known as Ibn Makanis, d. Dhu al-Hijjah 794/October-November 1392 (Manhal II, f. 290; Wiet 1370).

Muqri’ al-shubbak: Literally, "reciter of the grid" or "reciter of balustrade" (surrounding a sepulcher); Qur’an reader in an elevated oratory or gallery of a religious foundation, usually the dome (qubbah) of an endowed tomb (in this case, Baybarsiyyah Khaniqah in Cairo). Though it was a distinction for a Muslim of Coptic ancestry, this was the only reference to an individual of such background in the entire religious category of occupations, according to a survey (cf. C. Petry, The Civilian Elite of Cairo, pp. 262-67). Total references to muqri’in alone (without complement) approached two hundred positions. (See also R. Dozy, Supplément aux dictionnaires arabes [Leiden, 1927], I, 723, II, 329; G. Makdisi, The Rise of Colleges, p. 215.)

One position, 100 percent of one total:

Fakhr al-Din ibn al-Ghannam al-Qibti al-Sufi, d. Jumada II 895/April-May 1490 (Daw’ XI, p. 164, no. 521).

Mutasawwif: Specialist in principles/doctrines of mystic (Sufi) belief and ritual practice. This individual was probably an instructor (mudarris or spiritual guide of novices; in Sa‘id al-Su‘ada and Baybarsiya Khanqahs). However, the overall number of references to professorships (endowed teaching posts) in all disciplines or without complement approached six hundred in this survey (cf. Petry, The Civilian Elite of Cairo, pp. 250-53).

One position, 14 percent of seven total:

Fakhr al-Din ibn al-Ghannam al-Qibti al-Sufi, d. Jumada II 895/April-May 1490 (Daw’ XI, p. 164, no. 521).

Sha‘ir: Poet, recognized master of verse. In traditional Muslim societies, a title granted to persons regarded as accomplished in the highest literary art.

Three titles, 2 percent of 186 total:

Fakhr al-Din ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Qibti al-Hanafi al-Qahiri, known as Ibn Makanis, d. Dhu al-Hijjah 794/October-November 1392 (Manhal II, f. 290; Wiet 1370).

Majd al-Din Fadl-Allah ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Misri al-Qibti al-Hanafi, known as Ibn Makanis, d. Rabi‘ II 822/April-May 1419 (Daw’ VI, p. 172, no. 581; Manhal II, f. 520b; Wiet 1794).

Ibrahim ibn Mubarak al-Dhahli al-Shaybani al-Qibti, born 839/1435-1436 (Daw’ I, p. 118).

Six references, 2 percent of 213 total reported in these categories in the two dictionaries, were held by persons of Coptic ancestry.
CARL F. PETRY